Модел TCP/IP.

Какво е TCP/IP

TCP/IP включва множество от протоколи използвани при комуникация в Интернет и подобни мрежи. TCP/IP е най-разпространения протоколен стек при изграждане на WAN мрежи. Нарича се TCP/IP, защото това са най-важните протоколи и са първите, които са били описани.

TCP/IP осигурява връзка от край до край и определя как данните трябва да се форматират, адресират изпратят, маршрутизират и приемат в крайната точка.

TCP/IP модела се разделя на четири логически нива:

• Application – Приложно
• Transport Layer – Транспортно
• Internet Layer - Интенет
• Network Layer – Мрежово

Приложен слой

DHCP · DHCPv6 · DNS · FTP · HTTP · IMAP · IRC · LDAP · MGCP · NNTP · BGP · NTP · POP · RPC · RTP · RTSP · RIP · SIP · SMTP · SNMP · SOCKS · SSH · Telnet · TLS/SSL · XMPP

Транспотен слой

TCP · UDP · DCCP · SCTP · RSVP

Интернет слой

IP (IPv4 · IPv6) · ICMP · ICMPv6 · ECN · IGMP · IPsec

Канално ниво

ARP/InARP · NDP · OSPF · Tunnels (L2TP) · PPP · Media access control (Ethernet · DSL · ISDN · FDDI)

История

• За първи през 1975 година се реализира комуникация между Сtanford and University College London *In November, 1977, a three-network TCP/IP test was conducted between sites in the US, the UK, and Norway.
• The migration of the ARPANET to TCP/IP was officially completed on flag day January 1, 1983, when the new protocols were permanently activated.[5]

[edit] Adoption

• In March 1982, the US Department of Defense declared TCP/IP as the standard for all military computer networking.
• през 1989 AT&T дава за свободно ползване TCP/IP кода разработен за UNIX. В последствие различни производители го интегрират в собствените си системи
• Many companies sold TCP/IP stacks for Windows until Microsoft released its own TCP/IP stack in Windows 95. This event was a little late in the evolution of the Internet, but it cemented TCP/IP's dominance over other protocols, which eventually disappeared.

Представяне

Request for Comments: 1180

Всеки компютър, който е свързан в Интернет работи по таза логическа структура.

 ----------------------------
                     |    network applications  |
                     |                          |
                     |...  \ | /  ..  \ | /  ...|
                     |     -----      -----     |
                     |     |TCP|      |UDP|     |
                     |     -----      -----     |
                     |         \      /         |
                     |         --------         |
                     |         |  IP  |         |
                     |  -----  -*------         |
                     |  |ARP|   |               |
                     |  -----   |               |
                     |      \   |               |
                     |      ------              |
                     |      |ENET|              |
                     |      ---@--              |
                     ----------|-----------------
                               |
         ----------------------o---------
             Ethernet Cable

о - приемо-предавател
@ - физически адрес
* - IP adres
-----
|   | - блок обработващ данни
-----

Теминология

RFC1122

• Segment

Сегмент e транспортна единица за предаване от крайна точка до крайна точка в TCP протокол. Сегментът се състои от служебна част (header), следвана данните на приложението. Сегментът се помества (капсулира - encapsulatе) в IP дейтаграма (datagram - пакет с данни)

• Message (съобщение)

Съобщението е транспортна единица за предаване на данни в транспортния слой. В частност TCP segment e Message. Message се състои от служебната информация на транспортиращия протокол следвана данните на приложението. За да бъде предадено съобщението от край до край то трябва да бъде поместено в дейтаграма

• IP Datagram

Транспортна единица с данни за предаване от крайна точка до крайна точка в IP протокола. Съдържа IP служебна информация (хедър - header) следвана от данните на транспортното ниво (IP header следван от message). Ако няма други пояснения под datagram трябва се разбира IP datagram

• Packet (пакет)

Транспортна единица с данни, която се изпраща между Internet слоя и каналния слой. Съдържа IP служебна информация (header) и данни. Пакета може да е цяла IP datagram или част от IP datagram.

• Frame (фрейм, кадър)

Фрейм е Транспортна единица за предаване на данни в каналното ниво. Съставена е от служебна информация на каналното ниво, следвана от пакет.

• Connected Network

network to which a host is interfaced is often known as the "local network" or the "subnetwork" relative to that host. However, these terms can cause confusion, and therefore we use the term "connected network" in this document.

• Multihomed

Даден хост е multihomed, ако има няколко IP адреса

• Physical network interface физически интерфейс

This is a physical interface to a connected network and has a (possibly unique) link-layer address. Multiple physical network interfaces on a single host may share the same link-layer address, but the address must be unique for different hosts on the same physical network.

• Logical [network] interface

We define a logical [network] interface to be a logical path, distinguished by a unique IP address, to a connected нetwork. See Section 3.3.4.

• Specific-destination address

This is the effective destination address of a datagram, even if it is broadcast or multicast; see Section 3.2.1.3.

• Path

At a given moment, all the IP datagrams from a particular source host to a particular destination host will typically traverse the same sequence of gateways. We use the term "path" for this sequence. Note that a path is uni-directional; it is not unusual to have different paths in the two directions between a given host pair.

• MTU

The maximum transmission unit, i.e., the size of the largest packet that can be transmitted.

Transmission on connected network:

          _______________________________________________
         | LL hdr | IP hdr |         (data)              |
         |________|________|_____________________________|

          <---------- Frame ----------------------------->
                   <----------Packet -------------------->

Before IP fragmentation or after IP reassembly:

                   ______________________________________
                  | IP hdr | transport| Application Data |
                  |________|____hdr___|__________________|

                   <--------  Datagram ------------------>
                            <-------- Message ----------->

за TCP:

                   ______________________________________
                  | IP hdr |  TCP hdr | Application Data |
                  |________|__________|__________________|

                   <--------  Datagram ------------------>
                            <-------- Segment ----------->

3. Ethernet.................................................... 8 4. ARP......................................................... 9 5. Internet Protocol........................................... 12 6. User Datagram Protocol...................................... 22 7. Transmission Control Protocol............................... 24 8. Network Applications........................................ 25

Слоеве

Two Internet hosts connected via two routers and the corresponding layers used at each hop. The application on each host executes read and write operations as if the processes were directly connected to each other by some kind of data pipe. Every other detail of the communication is hidden from each process. The underlying mechanisms that transmit data between the host computers are located in the lower protocol layers.

Encapsulation of application data descending through the layers described in RFC 1122

The Internet protocol suite uses encapsulation to provide abstraction of protocols and services. Encapsulation is usually aligned with the division of the protocol suite into layers of general functionality. In general, an application (the highest level of the model) uses a set of protocols to send its data down the layers, being further encapsulated at each level.

The "layers" of the protocol suite near the top are logically closer to the user application, while those near the bottom are logically closer to the physical transmission of the data. Viewing layers as providing or consuming a service is a method of abstraction to isolate upper layer protocols from the nitty-gritty detail of transmitting bits over, for example, Ethernet and collision detection, while the lower layers avoid having to know the details of each and every application and its protocol.

Even when the layers are examined, the assorted architectural documents—there is no single architectural model such as ISO 7498, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model—have fewer and less rigidly defined layers than the OSI model, and thus provide an easier fit for real-world protocols. In point of fact, one frequently referenced document, RFC 1958, does not contain a stack of layers. The lack of emphasis on layering is a strong difference between the IETF and OSI approaches. It only refers to the existence of the "internetworking layer" and generally to "upper layers"; this document was intended as a 1996 "snapshot" of the architecture: "The Internet and its architecture have grown in evolutionary fashion from modest beginnings, rather than from a Grand Plan. While this process of evolution is one of the main reasons for the technology's success, it nevertheless seems useful to record a snapshot of the current principles of the Internet architecture."

RFC 1122, entitled Host Requirements, is structured in paragraphs referring to layers, but the document refers to many other architectural principles not emphasizing layering. It loosely defines a four-layer model, with the layers having names, not numbers, as follows: The Internet protocol suite and the layered protocol stack design were in use before the OSI model was established. Since then, the TCP/IP model has been compared with the OSI model in books and classrooms, which often results in confusion because the two models use different assumptions, including about the relative importance of strict layering.

This abstraction also allows upper layers to provide services that the lower layers cannot, or choose not, to provide. Again, the original OSI model was extended to include connectionless services (OSIRM CL).For example, IP is not designed to be reliable and is a best effort delivery protocol. This means that all transport layer implementations must choose whether or not to provide reliability and to what degree. UDP provides data integrity (via a checksum) but does not guarantee delivery; TCP provides both data integrity and delivery guarantee (by retransmitting until the receiver acknowledges the reception of the packet).

This model lacks the formalism of the OSI model and associated documents, but the IETF does not use a formal model and does not consider this a limitation, as in the comment by David D. Clark, "We reject: kings, presidents and voting. We believe in: rough consensus and running code." Criticisms of this model, which have been made with respect to the OSI model, often do not consider ISO's later extensions to that model.

For multiaccess links with their own addressing systems (e.g. Ethernet) an address mapping protocol is needed. Such protocols can be considered to be below IP but above the existing link system. While the IETF does not use the terminology, this is a subnetwork dependent convergence facility according to an extension to the OSI model, the internal organization of the network layer (IONL). ICMP & IGMP operate on top of IP but do not transport data like UDP or TCP. Again, this functionality exists as layer management extensions to the OSI model, in its Management Framework (OSIRM MF).

The SSL/TLS library operates above the transport layer (uses TCP) but below application protocols. Again, there was no intention, on the part of the designers of these protocols, to comply with OSI architecture.

The link is treated like a black box here. This is fine for discussing IP (since the whole point of IP is it will run over virtually anything). The IETF explicitly does not intend to discuss transmission systems, which is a less academic but practical alternative to the OSI model.

The following is a description of each layer in the TCP/IP networking model starting from the lowest level.

Link layer

The link layer is the networking scope of the local network connection to which a host is attached. This regime is called the link in Internet literature. This is the lowest component layer of the Internet protocols, as TCP/IP is designed to be hardware independent. As a result TCP/IP is able to be implemented on top of virtually any hardware networking technology.

The link layer is used to move packets between the Internet layer interfaces of two different hosts on the same link. The processes of transmitting and receiving packets on a given link can be controlled both in the software device driver for the network card, as well as on firmware or specialized chipsets. These will perform data link functions such as adding a packet header to prepare it for transmission, then actually transmit the frame over a physical medium. The TCP/IP model includes specifications of translating the network addressing methods used in the Internet Protocol to data link addressing, such as Media Access Control (MAC), however all other aspects below that level are implicitly assumed to exist in the link layer, but are not explicitly defined.

This is also the layer where packets may be selected to be sent over a virtual private network or other networking tunnel. In this scenario, the link layer data may be considered application data which traverses another instantiation of the IP stack for transmission or reception over another IP connection. Such a connection, or virtual link, may be established with a transport protocol or even an application scope protocol that serves as a tunnel in the link layer of the protocol stack. Thus, the TCP/IP model does not dictate a strict hierarchical encapsulation sequence.

Internet layer

Интeрнет слоя има задачата да изпраща пакети до различни мрежи. Работата в Интернет изисква изпращането на данни от изходната мрежа до крайната мрежа. Този процес се нарича маршрутизация.

Интернет протокола има две основни функции:

• адресация и идентификация. Това става чрез йерархична адресна система.
• рутиране - основната функция за изпращане на пакети с данни от изпращача към следващ нод по-близък до получателя

The internet layer is not only agnostic of application data structures at the transport layer, but it also does not distinguish between operation of the various transport layer protocols. So, IP can carry data for a variety of different upper layer protocols. These protocols are each identified by a unique protocol number: for example, Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) and Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) are protocols 1 and 2, respectively.

Some of the protocols carried by IP, such as ICMP (used to transmit diagnostic information about IP transmission) and IGMP (used to manage IP Multicast data) are layered on top of IP but perform internetworking functions. This illustrates the differences in the architecture of the TCP/IP stack of the Internet and the OSI model.

The internet layer only provides an unreliable datagram transmission facility between hosts located on potentially different IP networks by forwarding the transport layer datagrams to an appropriate next-hop router for further relaying to its destination. With this functionality, the internet layer makes possible internetworking, the interworking of different IP networks, and it essentially establishes the Internet.

The Internet Protocol is the principal component of the internet layer, and it defines two addressing systems to identify network hosts computers, and to locate them on the network.

• The original address system of the ARPANET and its successor, the Internet, is Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4). It uses a 32-bit IP address and is therefore capable of identifying approximately four billion hosts.
• Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) in 1998, and beginning production implementations in approximately 2006.

Transport layer

Транспортният слой създава свързаност от хост до хост. Той се занимава с доставката на данни независимо от тяхната структура и техния маршрут.

• end-to-end message transfer independent of the underlying network
• error control
• segmentation,
• flow control,
• congestion control, and
• application addressing (port numbers).

End to end message transmission or connecting applications at the transport layer can:

• connection-oriented, implemented in TCP
• connectionless, implemented in UDP.

The transport layer can be thought of as a transport mechanism, e.g., a vehicle with the responsibility to make sure that its contents (passengers/goods) reach their destination safely and soundly, unless another protocol layer is responsible for safe delivery. The layer simply establishes a basic data channel that an application uses in its task-specific data exchange.

For this purpose the layer establishes the concept of the port, a numbered logical construct allocated specifically for each of the communication channels an application needs. For many types of services, these port numbers have been standardized so that client computers may address specific services of a server computer without the involvement of service announcements or directory services.

Since IP provides only a best effort delivery, the transport layer is the first layer of the TCP/IP stack to offer reliability. IP can run over a reliable data link protocol such as the High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC).

For example, the TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that addresses numerous reliability issues to provide a reliable byte stream:

• data arrives in-order
• data has minimal error (i.e. correctness)
• duplicate data is discarded
• lost/discarded packets are resent
• includes traffic congestion control

The newer Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) is also a reliable, connection-oriented transport mechanism. It is message-stream-oriented — not byte-stream-oriented like TCP — and provides multiple streams multiplexed over a single connection. It also provides multi-homing support, in which a connection end can be represented by multiple IP addresses (representing multiple physical interfaces), such that if one fails, the connection is not interrupted. It was developed initially for telephony applications (to transport SS7 over IP), but can also be used for other applications.

User Datagram Protocol is a connectionless datagram protocol. Like IP, it is a best effort, "unreliable" protocol. Reliability is addressed through error detection using a weak checksum algorithm. UDP is typically used for applications such as streaming media (audio, video, Voice over IP etc.) where on-time arrival is more important than reliability, or for simple query/response applications like DNS lookups, where the overhead of setting up a reliable connection is disproportionately large. Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) is a datagram protocol that is designed for real-time data such as streaming audio and video.

The applications at any given network address are distinguished by their TCP or UDP port. By convention certain well known ports are associated with specific applications. (See List of TCP and UDP port numbers.)

Application layer

The application layer contains the higher-level protocols used by most applications for network communication. Examples of application layer protocols include the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). Data coded according to application layer protocols are then encapsulated into one or (occasionally) more transport layer protocols (such as TCP or UDP), which in turn use lower layer protocols to effect actual data transfer.

Since the IP stack defines no layers between the application and transport layers, the application layer must include any protocols that act like the OSI's presentation and session layer protocols. This is usually done through libraries.

Application layer protocols generally treat the transport layer (and lower) protocols as black boxes which provide a stable network connection across which to communicate, although the applications are usually aware of key qualities of the transport layer connection such as the end point IP addresses and port numbers. As noted above, layers are not necessarily clearly defined in the Internet protocol suite.

Application layer protocols are most often associated with client–server applications, and the commoner servers have specific ports assigned to them by the IANA:

• HTTP has port 80;
• Telnet has port 23; etc.

Clients, on the other hand, tend to use ephemeral ports, i.e. port numbers assigned at random from a range set aside for the purpose.

Transport and lower level layers are largely unconcerned with the specifics of application layer protocols. Routers and switches do not typically "look inside" the encapsulated traffic to see what kind of application protocol it represents, rather they just provide a conduit for it. However, some firewall and bandwidth throttling applications do try to determine what's inside, as with the Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP). It's also sometimes necessary for Network Address Translation (NAT) facilities to take account of the needs of particular application layer protocols. (NAT allows hosts on private networks to communicate with the outside world via a single visible IP address using port forwarding, and is an almost ubiquitous feature of modern domestic broadband routers).

Some of the networking models are from textbooks, which are secondary sources that may contravene the intent of RFC 1122 and other IETF primary sources.

OSI and TCP/IP layering differences

The three top layers in the OSI model—the application layer, the presentation layer and the session layer—are not distinguished separately in the TCP/IP model where it is just the application layer. While some pure OSI protocol applications, such as X.400, also combined them, there is no requirement that a TCP/IP protocol stack must impose monolithic architecture above the transport layer. For example, the NFS application protocol runs over the eXternal Data Representation (XDR) presentation protocol, which, in turn, runs over a protocol called Remote Procedure Call (RPC). RPC provides reliable record transmission, so it can run safely over the best-effort UDP transport.

Different authors have interpreted the RFCs differently, about whether the link layer (and the TCP/IP model) covers OSI model layer 1 (physical layer) issues, or if a hardware layer is assumed below the link layer.

Several authors have attempted to incorporate the OSI model's layers 1 and 2 into the TCP/IP model, since these are commonly referred to in modern standards (for example, by IEEE and ITU). This often results in a model with five layers, where the link layer or network access layer is split into the OSI model's layers 1 and 2.

The session layer roughly corresponds to the Telnet virtual terminal functionality[citation needed], which is part of text based protocols such as the HTTP and SMTP TCP/IP model application layer protocols. It also corresponds to TCP and UDP port numbering, which is considered as part of the transport layer in the TCP/IP model. Some functions that would have been performed by an OSI presentation layer are realized at the Internet application layer using the MIME standard, which is used in application layer protocols such as HTTP and SMTP.

The IETF protocol development effort is not concerned with strict layering. Some of its protocols may not fit cleanly into the OSI model, although RFCs sometimes refer to it and often use the old OSI layer numbers. The IETF has repeatedly stated that Internet protocol and architecture development is not intended to be OSI-compliant. RFC 3439, addressing Internet architecture, contains a section entitled: "Layering Considered Harmful".

Conflicts are apparent also in the original OSI model, ISO 7498, when not considering the annexes to this model (e.g., ISO 7498/4 Management Framework), or the ISO 8648 Internal Organization of the Network layer (IONL). When the IONL and Management Framework documents are considered, the ICMP and IGMP are neatly defined as layer management protocols for the network layer. In like manner, the IONL provides a structure for "subnetwork dependent convergence facilities" such as ARP and RARP.

IETF protocols can be encapsulated recursively, as demonstrated by tunneling protocols such as Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE). GRE uses the same mechanism that OSI uses for tunneling at the network layer. [edit]

Реализация

No specific hardware or software implementation is required by the protocols or the layered model, so there are many. Most computer operating systems in use today, including all consumer-targeted systems, include a TCP/IP implementation.

A minimally acceptable implementation includes the following protocols, listed from most essential to least essential: IP, ARP, ICMP, UDP, TCP and sometimes IGMP. In principle, it is possible to support only one transport protocol, such as UDP, but this is rarely done, because it limits usage of the whole implementation. IPv6, beyond its own version of ARP (NDP), ICMP (ICMPv6) and IGMP (IGMPv6), has some additional required functions, and often is accompanied by an integrated IPSec security layer. Other protocols could be easily added later (possibly being implemented entirely in userspace), such as DNS for resolving domain names to IP addresses, or DHCP for automatically configuring network interfaces.

Normally, application programmers are concerned only with interfaces in the application layer and often also in the transport layer, while the layers below are services provided by the TCP/IP stack in the operating system. Most IP implementations are accessible to programmers through sockets and APIs.

Unique implementations include Lightweight TCP/IP, an open source stack designed for embedded systems, and KA9Q NOS, a stack and associated protocols for amateur packet radio systems and personal computers connected via serial lines.

Microcontroller firmware in the network adapter typically handles link issues, supported by driver software in the operational system. Non-programmable analog and digital electronics are normally in charge of the physical components below the link layer, typically using an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) chipset for each network interface or other physical standard. High-performance routers are to a large extent based on fast non-programmable digital electronics, carrying out link level switching.